theglobaljournal.net: Latest activities of group Transforming Cities

“Hello Darkness, My Old Friend”

2012-05-23T14:12:56Z

“Artificial light in the environment must be considered a chronic impairment of habitat...While lamp efficiency and consideration of SPD (spectral power distribution) are significant accomplishments, true night sky friendly lighting can still only be achieved by vigilant examination of how much light actually needs to be used and routine implementation of minimum levels required for security and recreation" (“Seeing Blue”).

According to the Clinton Foundation, there are some 35 million municipal streetlights in the U.S. Most of these are of the older "cobra head" variety with "drop lenses" that extend down below the fixture and project much of the light output horizontally - into the eyes of drivers and pedestrians - and even upward into the sky, where it does no good at all. The International Dark-Sky Association estimates that 30 percent of the light from such fixtures, and the energy generated to produce it, is wasted in this way. When one considers that there are at least several times as many private outdoor lighting sources - "security" lights, advertising billboards, and purely ornamental floodlights directed at signs, trees, and the sides of buildings - the true scope of this waste becomes clear. In the battle against global warming, reduction of unnecessary outdoor lighting should be low-hanging fruit. In addition to consuming electricity without providing any benefit, excessive and ill-designed outdoor lighting also negatively affects human health and the natural environment in a myriad of ways.

Some lights are far worse than others. Now that mercury vapor lights are being phased out because of their poor energy efficiency and high mercury content, the blue-white metal halide lamps are the most environmentally damaging type in common use. Metal halide lamps emit a substantial portion of their light as shorter wavelengths, including in the ultraviolet range, where it cannot be seen by people (and therefore provides no benefit) but can - as with light from any UV source -damage retinas and contribute to macular degeneration. According to a recent study published in the Journal of Environmental Management, blue light is also especially effective at altering circadian rhythms and suppressing melatonin production, leading to difficulty sleeping (among those exposed at night, for example, people living in houses illuminated by metal halide streetlights). According to Professor Abraham Haim, head of the Center for Interdisciplinary Chronobiological Research at the University of Haifa and co-author of that study, "Short wavelengths should be eliminated from the nocturnal spectrum." A low melatonin level, caused in part by exposure to metal halide or other blue-white light sources, has also been linked to a higher risk of breast and prostate cancer.

Streetlights with full cut-off fixtures (flat lenses) project light downward at the street below, and not upward or to the sides, making them preferable to the more commonly used protruding “drop lenses” that spread the light out in a wide cone of illumination, much of it directed laterally and into the sky. Most streetlights could also be far less bright (lower lumens) and still be adequate for safety, while consuming less electricity and reducing the associated carbon emissions. The goal should be better light, and less light. While the energy efficiency of new LED lights is promising, more work needs to be done to develop LED lighting with greatly reduced blue-spectrum emissions in order to decrease its most negative impacts on the night environment. We must wean ourselves off the idea that night must be as bright as day: humans, animals, and astronomers all benefit from naturally dark nights.

More light does not mean more safety: intersections DO usually need to be lit (preferably with high or low-pressure sodium lamps in full cut-off fixtures), but on a straightaway, bright lights mostly serve to embolden drivers to increase speeds. Bright white bulbs, especially those such as metal-halide that emit a large quantity of UV light, cause much greater glare for the same light output compared to sodium-vapor bulbs. The eye instinctively reacts to the sudden onslaught of bright white and UV light by contracting the pupil to protect the retina. Then, when the driver or biker passes back out from under the streetlight, they are temporarily blinded as their eyes struggle to readjust to more normal night-time conditions. This effect leads to an increased risk of accidents in the areas that drivers pass through immediately after leaving the cone of illumination of a blue-white streetlight.

Dark streets and houses are often more safe than lit-up areas. This counter-intuitive effect results from the fact that thieves and other criminals need light in order to "work" (consider also that a potential intruder using a flashlight to see in a dark area is quite conspicuous), and pedestrians blinded by the glare from overly bright or poorly shielded fixtures have difficulty spotting threats (you can see this in the photos at the two Illinois Coalition sites). Many cities around the world have dramatically reduced outdoor lighting and experienced a decline in crime and accidents.

In short, outdoor lighting is often poorly designed or overused, and consequently does not provide the benefits to safety that one might expect, while negatively impacting human health.

Then there's the devastating cost to nature of lighting up the habitats of wild animals throughout the night. When one considers that most streetlights operate on photo sensors and so are on from dusk until dawn - perhaps an average of 12 hours each day in the northeast - it seems obvious that there must be some impact on wild animal species that evolved over millions of years in conditions of night-time darkness. And this is indeed the case. Like people, animals benefit from regular periods of darkness, and suffer in their absence. This is especially true for nocturnal animals, for which feeding, mating, and other critical behaviors are strongly (and negatively) influenced by artificial night-time illumination. Most of us are familiar with the attraction of nocturnal insects, particularly moths, to outdoor lights, but it is not widely understood just now negatively insect populations are impacted by artificial lighting. All the time and energy that insects expend circling endlessly about a lit bulb, which they may mistake for the moon, necessarily detracts from their ability to successfully find food or mates, while making them easy prey for predators such as spiders. A 2003 German study suggested that each streetlight in that nation was responsible for the deaths of, on average, 150 insects each night. Assuming a similar figure applies for each of the 35 million streetlights in the US, we might conclude that a staggering 5.25 billion insects die at streetlights on a typical American night!

Their detrimental effect on insect populations is one reason to eliminate unnecessary or ornamental outdoor lights, and use less bright (and better shielded) bulbs where possible, but it is also a reason to switch from blue-white lamps such as the mercury vapor and metal halide type, to yellower high or low-pressure sodium lamps. This is because insects (and most other wild animals) are most sensitive to light at the bluer end of the spectrum, including UV light. As a result, insects are more attracted to - and fatally ensnared by - blue-white lamps, relative to the yellower sodium-vapor type. In a 2000 German study published in Natur und Landschaft (see Eisenbeis and Hassel, below) the number of nocturnal insects captured was 50 percent lower overall, and 75 percent lower for Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) at sodium-vapor lamps, compared to the mercury-vapor type (which produces a white-blue light similar in spectrum to metal-halide lamps). It is therefore reasonable to conclude that replacing a single mercury-vapor or metal-halide streetlight bulb with a high or low-pressure sodium bulb could easily save the lives of 10,000 or more insects each year.

Even if one does not particularly care for insects per se, these creatures are vital links in the food chain, providing sustenance for thousands of species of birds, bats, reptiles and amphibians (aquatic insect larvae are also an important component of fish diets), and pollinating countless millions of flowering trees and plants each year. So avoiding light-induced deaths of insects would benefit - directly or indirectly - nearly every species of wild animal, and many wild (and domesticated) plant species as well.

In addition to their harmful effects on insects, bright and abundant outdoor lights intimidate salamanders and frogs, discouraging them from emerging from their daytime hiding places (in leaf litter, etc.) to feed or mate, and consequently reducing their populations as well. But the most detrimental effect of all is on bird migrations. Birds, accustomed to navigating by the moon, become disoriented by lights that are directed upward (either intentionally, as with ornamental floodlights and sports stadiums, or unintentionally, in the form of poorly shielded outdoor fixtures and illuminated buildings with large windows). Estimates for the number of birds killed each year in collisions with lighted structures range as high as 100 million in North America alone. Certainly this is a powerful reason to properly shield outdoor lights so they do not illuminate the sky, and the same argument can be made for turning off indoor lights when nobody is around, as well as taking the simple step of drawing the blinds or curtains at night.

Night light blocks our view of the starry sky and makes astronomicalobservations difficult or impossible, which is why astronomers have spearheaded the fight against light pollution. (See http://physics.fau.edu/observatory/lightpol-environ.html).

Cornell’s campus observatory was rendered nearly unusable by the addition of dozens of nearby blue-white parking lot lights, as well as innumerable fixtures that might charitably be called "ornamental". The use of low-pressure sodium lamps (favored by astronomers because they emit light on a very narrow range of wavelengths, and so can be easily filtered out by spectrometers), combined with flat lenses and sensible shielding directing light downward (see Fig. 1), and simply not installing superfluous floodlights and ornamental fixtures on and around buildings and parking lots, could greatly reduce sky glow. It would also save money and CO2 emissions (since low-pressure sodium lamps are literally twice as energy efficient, measured in lumens of light produced per watt of energy, as metal-halide bulbs).

People who think they prefer bright blue-white light often come to like less bright, yellower, and smaller lights. (We personally think that the yellowish sodium-vapor lights, which are also the most environmentally friendly, are softer and more attractive than the blue-white metal halide "glare bombs".)

Sodium bulbs are also more energy efficient, and contain less mercury than metal halide bulbs. While it may not be financially feasible for local governments to install entirely new fixtures at the present time, the replacement of blue-white mercury vapor and metal halide streetlights and outdoor building lights with high-pressure sodium bulbs would be an inexpensive way to make our towns and cities friendlier to wildlife, while saving money in the long run (due to the increased efficiency of sodium-vapor bulbs, relative to the other types). Going forward, we should make sure that the environmental and human health effects of new outdoor lighting are adequately considered before new fixtures are installed!

The article was co-authored with Seth Bensel.

(Photo 1 © NASA/DMSP)

(Photo 2 © Illinois Coalition for Responsible Outdoor Lighting)

(Photo HP © Farfromthepicture from Flickr)

SOURCES:

William J. Clinton Foundation

Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Science Daily

American Medical Assn. House of Delegates Resolution March 30, 2009

American Cancer Society

Audobon Magazine

General Electric Corporation

Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center

Shanghai's Global Nights

2012-05-18T18:21:07Z

It’s hard to be more global than the nights in Shanghai. After experiencing the night life of Berlin, Paris, New York, Barcelona, Dubai, you must plunge into the most wideawake night life on the planet. Shanghai nights are just like the country itself – exploding with energy, yet cautious about joining the mêlée. Young Chinese and expats from all over the world mingle together in a deluge of music ‘made in China’ – and elsewhere. Globalization is here, in the Shanghai nighttime.

There is no place like Hengshan Lu. Every night of the week, the road gets completely congested around 10pm, when taxi cabs start queuing in front of the numerous clubs, blocking the way for the rest of the traffic. The sounds of loud and repetitive beats can be heard from far away. As you approach the main part of the street, luxury cars appear like the highlight of the latest auto show; Ferrari, Porsche and Maserati are parked directly on the sidewalk, where it is absolutely forbidden to park during the day. The smell of grilled food coming from street vendors fills the sidewalk. The Hengshan road crowd is young in age. Groups of girls, wearing only a few square centimeters of clothing, are passing through the various club doorways. MT, Phoebe, CD3, Westside – different names but same basic concept. Very loud music, hundreds of tables, more or less private, a bar and a small dance floor accommodate a mixed crowd of customers and staff. Most of the customers are playing a variety of alcoholic games involving dice….

About ten years ago, most of the club scene was concentrated in a few streets like Hengshan Road. With the development of Shanghai and the arrival of many foreign investors, the scene has spread all over the city. The small clusters of bars have grown exponentially, slowly adapting to the new and more demanding Shanghai crowd. From just a few music clubs very similar to each other, the city is now offering every kind of venue, from high-end whisky bars to small underground dives, clubs, live houses, and regular corner bars.

To read the entire report, order a copy of the magazine.

Text and photography by Tim Franco for The Global Journal

Healthy Buildings: Tackling Disease Through Design

2012-05-18T18:11:42Z

New active design practices promoting physical activity and wellbeing are becoming a key strategy for tackling chronic non-communicable diseases caused by sedentary lifestyles.

Walking the streets of Manhattan, one cannot fail to be struck by the immense stature of New York's iconic skyscrapers, nor the sheer dynamism generated by one of the most densely populated areas on earth. Surges in immigration - especially at the turn of the twentieth century - meant more and more people arrived in the city via Ellis Island - all of them requiring shelter. Whilst innovations in technology and engineering at the time - such as the elevator and air conditioning systems - meant commercial structures in particular could be built higher and higher, the darker side of the population boom was an explosion in tenement housing that packed immigrant families together in poorly-lit, inadequately ventilated and unsanitary living conditions. Like other major cities of the industrial era grappling with the phenomenon of slum-living, reformers in New York could confidently trace a direct line from prevailing urban design practices (and oversights) through to the public health crises of the day: cholera, tuberculosis and other infectious epidemics.

Fast-forward 100 years and the situation - at least in the developed world - has altered radically. People drink clean water, eat safe food and wash regularly. Architects, designers and engineers have contributed to a revitalization of urban living conditions through developments in site- and street-planning, clean water delivery systems, sewage and sanitation technology, and green spaces. In New York, the introduction of new residential building regulations requiring ventilation and lighting prevented the recurrence of tragedies like the 1896 heatwave, when hundreds of tenement dwellers died in cramped windowless spaces that could sometimes reach 49°C. Building codes and hygienic advances proved crucial in controlling and preventing the spread of acute communicable diseases in high-density urban environments.

And yet, while the fabric of our twenty-first century cities may have changed, so too have the public health challenges faced in modern urban settings. Surges in the incidence of chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) - such as hypertension, diabetes and heart disease - are the result of an accelerating global phenomenon: increasingly sedentary lifestyles, poor dietary choices and excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages and tobacco. According to a growing school of researchers, the rise of these "diseases of energy" (or rather the lack thereof) can be seen, in part, as a result of the incremental engineering of physical activity out of our daily lives.

To read the full report, order a copy of the magazine.

By Arun Luykx

Back in the Subway

2012-04-27T16:29:40Z

Subway by Bruce Davidson, Steidl 48€

For several years now, publisher Steidl has been republishing photographers whose work, often out of print, represents a cornerstone in the story of photography and its dissemination. In this way, artists such as Robert Frank, William Eggleston or Lewis Baltz – who have always believed in the importance of publication in book form – have been able to bring their work to the public eye again. Now photographer Bruce Davidson will see his work reprinted. Following Circus, England/Scotland 1960 and the magnificent collection Outside Inside, printed in 2009, his series on the New York metro, Subway, has just been reissued.

When Davidson carried out this work, in the early 80s, the New York subway was a dangerous place: no day passed without some act of aggression or violence. In the fine introductory text, the photographer explains how he prepared himself, like an athlete or explorer, to face any situation, to overcome fear and to venture out on the rail network well beyond Manhattan, through devastated or well-kempt neighborhoods. He describes the poverty, the unlikely encounters by day or by night, and how he dared to take pictures with flash amidst this human magma. Beyond the views and the voyage framed by the train windows, beyond the incredible presence of taggers’ graffiti dripping endlessly all over the carriages, Subway is a book portraying men and women, rich and poor, in a theatre that neutralizes all social differences. Davidson began the work in black and white, but, quickly struck by the combination of artificial light and metallic reflections from the surface of the train, was persuaded that the images required color. This is exceptional in his oeuvre. Subway is a rainbow ride from slums to city skyline. We encounter the human condition through a unique collection of portraits and attitudes, captured in the cool tones of the legendary kodachrome. Bruce Davidson remains faithful to the human commitment that drew him to photograph life in Harlem or the Civil Rights Movement – a story told by a perceptive and generous observer.

By B. F.

China: High-Speed Ahead

2012-04-16T12:09:54Z

China has faced a lot of criticism about its new high-speed rail service, especially after a train derailed in July 2010, killing 40 and injuring 192. But a new World Bank study found that the service is already larger in volume than that on the entire French high-speed rail network, and is rivaling the volume on the Japanese high-speed rail system.

The report forecasts that rapid growth in traffic on China’s high-speed rail system will continue, as new lines currently under construction are completed, urban incomes rise, and the movement of the population from rural areas to cities continues.

High-speed rail services have now been operating in China for three years, and the sheer speed with which the rail system has been built is awe-inspiring. As many as 100,000 workers per line have built about 5,000-miles of track in just six years—sometimes ahead of schedule. The Beijing-to-Shanghai line not originally expected to open until 2012, opened early. The entire system is set to be completed by 2020.

“A general picture is emerging in which high-speed rail, as in other countries, is competing strongly on short and medium-distance routes up to 1,000 km while air remains dominant over longer distances,” said Richard Bullock, a railway expert and consultant to the World Bank and an author on the report.

For the United States and Europe, the implications are huge. China’s manufacturing and global export abilities are likely to grow as more cities are connected and workers can move faster. The United States has had trouble getting bipartisan support for a high-speed rail service, although President Obama is a strong supporter.

Many thought rail ridership in China would come from passengers moving from air to high-speed rail. But this has not been the case. Instead, a larger source of ridership has been ‘generated’ trips, or new trips by passengers who are traveling because of the greater convenience of a high-speed service.

Evidence suggests that high-speed rail can compete with air travel at distances up to 1,000 kilometers, but not over longer distances. For shorter distances, it seems to be able to take almost all of the market share from buses as long as train stations are conveniently located. But there are still more new passengers, who have never traveled these routes before, using high-speed rail, than former bus or air passengers switching to the train service. This implies a very high demand for high-speed rail service - a positive sign.

The report is “cautiously optimistic” about the long-term ridership and economic viability of the major high-speed railway network in China. “However, this optimism is tempered by the need to develop a sustainable financing mechanism in the short to medium term and to carefully weigh the costs and benefits of the peripheral extensions of the network,” the report concluded.

Meanwhile, last month, heavy rain caused a section of a 180-mile high-speed rail link in central China, set to open in May, to collapse, state news agency Xinhua said. There were no reports of any injuries from the collapsed track.

China's cabinet criticized the railways ministry last December for poor safety standards.

(Photo in homepage © DR)

(Photo © Bombardier Transportation)

English Language Broadcasting in Switzerland: The End of the Story?

2012-04-05T15:54:38Z

The Swiss Broadcasting Corporation (SSR) has announced a wide review of all of its internet platforms, radio and television stations across Switzerland. The oldest English language radio with national broadcasting, World Radio Switzerland (WRS), finds itself in a peculiar situation. While the review process is projected to take place over the next seven months, WRS has already been threatened with either closure or privatization. The key argument invoked by the head of SSR is that WRS should no longer be funded by public money since it operates in English, a non-official language of the Swiss Confederation. The Global Journal tried to clarify the reasons behind the decision that has shaken Switzerland’s international community.

Mark Butcher, a long-term WRS host and recent founder and director of Radio Frontier, is convinced that the decision taken by the SSR is entirely motivated by financial constraints.

“At the moment the SSR has to save a lot of money as the funding from license fees has been frozen. Therefore, they need to make savings and they say that WRS is one of the stations they need to chop. It is a totally financial decision. They are trying to save money with the least political pain.”

Considering the substantial presence of foreigners in the Geneva canton, Mr. Butcher emphasizes the need for Geneva to have a vibrant English language radio station. According to him, Radio Frontier is perfectly suited to fulfill this role since it is a private organization not funded by tax payers.

The chairman of Saatchi and Saatchi Switzerland and outspoken media observer Pedro Simko adheres to the view that not only Geneva, but the whole of Switzerland, is bound to lose from the closure of the WRS, a national media platform.

“It is a completely short-sighted decision and a monstrously erroneous argument that WRS is not in one of our national languages. But beyond that, the role of WRS is to help a very large ex-pat community to integrate into Switzerland. And Switzerland lives from the very important relationship that we have with that community. Without WRS I think we are losing an opportunity to acquire some of these companies, which is the foundation of our economy.”

The final outcome remains to be seen, even though it appears that a decision to close the WRS would be equally disappointing for its staff and dedicated listeners. The latter have already begun generating comments and ideas on a dedicated web page. Ex-pat James Moffat explains why Switzerland needs to continue broadcasting in English.

“If we all want to have freedom of speech, true democracy and integration, surely having an English language radio station provides a great number of both foreigners and Swiss nationals the opportunity to communicate in one common language. After all, the Swiss themselves have great trouble internally with the four official languages, let alone the multiple dialects that impose yet another challenge. Closing down any radio station that provides the value that residents want is shameful, but when it is such an important part of integration for newcomers, or short contracts in Switzerland, and one that gives us all the ability to learn and understand more about Switzerland and what is happening in the country we live in, it’s also saddening.”

SSR was not available for comment on its decision concerning the WRS radio station.

(Photo © WRS)

Policing the Police: Civilian Video Monitoring of Police Activity

2012-03-07T12:48:42Z

Police misconduct and violence continues throughout the world, often without any oversight, accountability or justice for the victims. Recent deaths of civilians by police officers in New York, violent repression of “Occupy” protestors, and rampant police violence in response to the “Arab Spring” have brought renewed attention to the persistent issue of police violence. A critical tool for documenting misconduct, seeking redress, and advancing reform efforts is the street-level use of video monitoring by civil society. The innovation of social networks and information-sharing platforms, together with the accessibility of audio-video technology, has enhanced the ability of everyday civilians and NGOs to hold security providers accountable to the people they are sworn to serve.

The monitoring of street-level police practices is essential for strengthening the rule of law and democratic governance of police services, for encouraging appropriate reform, reducing violence and improving police-community relations. It is a critical tool for holding security institutions accountable to the people they serve and by consequence, enhancing the quality of life of civilians, as well as citizen and community security. Domestic and international initiatives for police reform should learn from these efforts, incorporate them into their toolkits and provide sustained and structural support to strengthen and replicate them.

On 26 January 2012, 19-year old Jateik Reed was violently beaten by four New York Police Department (NYPD) officers during a street encounter in the Bronx, NY. The officers claim that Reed forcefully resisted arrest on drug possession charges, punching and head-butting the officers. After the incident, however, cellphone video footage of the incident was released. Rather than resisting arrest, the footage shows the officers physically assaulting Reed, knocking him to the ground, striking him with batons and kicking him repeatedly for around 20 seconds. Since the release of the video, the officers have been placed on modified duty and stripped of their badges and guns.

On 2 February 2012, 18 year-old Ramarley Graham was shot and killed at close range in the bathroom of his Bronx home by a NYPD plainclothes narcotics officer. The officer, along with a group of fellow officers from the NYPD’s Street Narcotics Enforcement Unit, forcefully kicked their way into Graham’s home after claiming that Graham was suspected of drug possession, resisting arrest, and running away from the police. The officers claim that Graham was believed to be armed and dangerous. However, in the days following Graham’s death, surveillance footage outside his home revealed Graham calmly walking into his home, unlocking and opening his door, and closing it behind him. Officers swarmed afterwards, forcing their way into his home with guns drawn, and ultimately, taking his life. Richard Haste, the officer who fired the fatal shot, and his partner, Sgt. Scott Morris have both been placed on administrative duties.

On November 29, 2011, 68 year-old Kenneth Chamberlain was shot and killed by officers in White Plains, NY. The officers reported that they responded to a medical stress call, were shown a knife and threatened by Chamberlain. Subsequently, however, video and audio tape revealed that Chamberlain was not under medical duress, that officers used racial slurs and that Chamberlain was unarmed when he was shot.

During the wave of demonstrations and protests known as “Occupy”, video footage of police actions documented police spraying pepper spray and shooting teargas canisters and bean bags directly - and often at point blank range – into the faces of demonstrators. Images of police spraying non-violent student demonstrators at the University of California-Davis’ campus, and footage of NYPD Deputy Anthony Bologna’s repeated use of pepper spray on detained protestors became rallying cries for the protests and drew national attention to the issue of police use of force during demonstrations.

And who could forget Rodney King, the survivor of a graphic beating by members of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD)? The video of the incident, which was captured on a camcorder by a civilian observer, was shown on airwaves around the world and led to a massive outcry for reform. After the trial of the four LAPD officers involved in the beating failed to secure any convictions, a massive uprising occurred in L.A., commonly referred to as the “L.A. riots”. A later federal civil rights trial found two of the officers guilty and sentenced them to 30 months in prison. The incident spawned a number of police accountability initiatives, particularly in terms of intentional civilian video monitoring of police.

Instances of police violence have been captured in many other countries outside the USA. Most recently, videos of police violence in response to demonstrations in Egypt, Tunisia, Libya, Iran and Yemen have proved vitally important to help bring global attention to the violent repression and misconduct by police against pro-democracy and reform activists, and bolstered demands and action for reform of the police and other security institutions.

Those incidents which are captured represent only a small percentage of the number of incidents and interactions that occur between civilians and law enforcement on a daily basis throughout the United States. These encounters routinely occur without independent coverage and often rely on the officer’s account alone. Due to their position of authority, officers’ accounts frequently prevail over counter-narratives provided by their civilian counterparts. It is important to stress, however, that most daily interactions between police and civilians occur without incident or abuse and the majority of police officers conduct their duty with respect and dignity for themselves, the badge, the law - and most importantly - the people and communities they serve. Nonetheless, such unchecked authority and use of (lethal) force must be monitored and controlled. This is essential for maintaining the rule of law, establishing police services responsible to the communities they serve, and enhancing quality of life, citizen/community security and human development.

Street encounters initiated by police officers are the most common form of interaction between police officers and civilians. The NYPD, the largest police force in the United States (with approximately 36,000 uniformed officers) and a model for policing practices domestically and internationally has initiated a programme called “stop and frisk” (sometimes “stop, question and frisk” or SQF) in New York City. In 2011, the NYPD conducted over 684,000 stops of civilians. In theory, SQF was envisioned as a situation in which a police officer stops a person on the street for suspicion of engaging in or planning to engage in illegal activity and questions them. The officer can frisk the individual if the officer has reasonable suspicion that the individual holds a weapon or narcotics and poses a threat to the officer or to those around them.

Those who endorse SQF practice deem the activity necessary to get weapons off the street. Opponents, however, have cited SQF as unconstitutional, illegal and based in racial profiling. They rebut the weapons claim by pointing out the incredibly low “hit” rate – less than 0.1 percent of all stops yield weapons or narcotics. In addition, advocates and experts have alleged racial bias in the practice as Blacks and Latinos constitute over 80 percent of those stopped. Further, the constitutionality and legality of the practice is questioned as fewer than 12 percent of those stopped are arrested or receive a summons. The most frequent justifications for the stops that are provided by the officers (and pre-printed on the forms) – such as “furtive movements” – remain legally dubious, at best. Even when controlled for crime rates and resource allocations, advocates have contended the stops to be unjustified and racially motivated.

In addition to questions regarding the legality of the practice, there are also serious concerns regarding the use of force. Indeed, the use of force appears at an alarming rate in many police-civilian street encounters. In an analysis conducted for the Center for Constitutional Rights, which analyzed NYPD databases detailing recorded SQFs from 2005 through the first half of 2008, NYPD officers were reported as using force in 24 percent of all stops conducted. In fact, the use of physical force by NYPD officers occurred more frequently than either the number of summonses issued, or actual arrests combined. Furthermore, the research showed significant racial disparity in the use of force, as officers used force against 17 percent of Whites stopped, versus 24 percent of Blacks and Latinos. Subsequent data analyses have confirmed this troubling, continuing trend. While these figures alone do not demonstrate that such use of force was illegal, its frequency (which may be even higher as this figure relies on self-reporting by officers) demands oversight and control.

Despite these concerns and a number of legal challenges, public demonstrations and media condemnation, SQF has ballooned into a massive daily enterprise. As noted earlier, in 2011, 684,330 stops were made, up 14 percent from 2010 and 600 percent from 2002. Given the high frequency of encounters, the alleged unconstitutionality of the stops, their reliance on racial profiling and the frequency of the use of force, this should be of utmost concern for anyone concerned with police reform specifically or – more broadly - democratic governance, security and the rule of law.

As a means of providing oversight, control and accountability for practices such as this and other “everyday” police-civilian encounters, video monitoring by civilians has grown in popularity. To be sure, video monitoring has proven to be a key tactic for fostering non-violent policy-civilian interactions, as well as a useful component in broader strategies for reform.

As a means of observing and monitoring police activities and to hold officers accountable for misconduct, video monitoring by civilians has proved itself to be an extremely effective and popular tool, boosted by the heightened accessibility of video-recording devices, especially cellphones. As noted in The Economist (December 2011), over two-thirds of Americans, for instance, own digital cameras. The prevalence of recording devices combined with the availability of video-sharing sites on the internet, such as YouTube or Facebook, allows a video to go viral instantaneously. Further, as many news outlets rely increasingly upon “citizen journalists”, such outlets have gained increased legitimacy and effectiveness.

Such “uncontrolled” and decentralized information sharing can prove unwieldy if not counter-effective. As an alternative, a number of organized police accountability organizations have developed “CopWatch” programs. As the name implies, CopWatch programs are designed to monitor street-level police activities, particularly their interactions with civilians. Programs have been developed in Berkeley, California, Portland, Oregon, Los Angeles, New York City and Paris, France, amongst other locations.[1] Often partnered with street outreach and “know your rights” workshops, these initiatives strive to empower communities to hold police accountable to the communities they serve by discouraging the illegal (or questionable) use of force or illegal stops and frisks. The programs train volunteers to engage in CopWatch outings, provide video equipment, on-call attorney networks (in case their members get arrested) and a follow-up mechanism in order to seek redress for documented incidents of misconduct or abuse. In addition, the programs strive to provide a proactive deterrent to misconduct and abuse by having civilians - armed with video cameras and informed of their rights - observing and documenting police actions.

However, rather than embracing the activity or simply permitting it to happen, many police have lashed out by targeting videographers. In the past year, stories have appeared in news outlets such as The Washington Post, The Economist, The New York Times and Time, detailing incidents involving police arresting civilians because they were filming them. Such incidents have been recorded in states such as Florida, California, Pennsylvania, New York and Ohio.

That is why a recent US Federal Appeals decision is of crucial importance. In the case, Glik v. Cunniffe, et al., the court ruled that it is a constitutionally protected First Amendment activity to videotape police activities in public and that this right is well enough established that an arrest for such activity amounts to a violation of one’s Fourth Amendment rights. As the court ruled: “Gathering information about government officials in a form that can readily be disseminated to others serves a cardinal First Amendment interest in protecting and promoting “the free discussion of governmental affairs.”

The court continued to note that “Ensuring the public’s right to gather information about their officials not only aids in the uncovering of abuses…but also may have a salutary effect on the functioning of government more generally.”

Such activity should not be resisted or feared by police departments; an engaged community and citizenry can be the most effective partner for police in preventing and combating crime. In addition, this can help return police activities to their ideal place: serving and protecting the communities in which they work. Lastly, an increase of video monitoring can also serve to help de-escalate incidents and also document the cases in which police officers do their job appropriately and correctly.

On-the-ground street-level civilian monitoring of police forces is a critical way of maintaining civilian oversight, transparency and accountability of police actions and to reduce violence on the street. Indeed, this is not just an initiative that should be encouraged and supported domestically, but internationally as well. Such documentation has proved critical in the democracy and reform demonstrations around the world, most clearly evidenced during the Arab Spring. Within international development practice, particularly related to security sector reform (SSR), this is one of the most direct ways to encourage civil society participation and empowerment: the provision of street monitoring training and necessary video equipment to local civil society organizations, including the media, as well as encouraging the establishment of legal protection for such activities. Such a coordinated effort can help improve the SSR and international development community’s efforts to engage in meaningful and genuine community-based and bottom-approaches to reform and oversight. This can prove especially valuable as SSR and other related reform programs continue to struggle to engage in effective community-based efforts to reform police, strengthen civil society and enhance citizen and community security. Many of the SSR toolkits and activities on “police integrity”, for instance, tend to focus on internal capacity-building as the means for reform and negate the powerful role to be played by civil society. This in part not only reflects a frequent state-centric vantage point, but also an incomplete and narrow view of reform, which prioritizes issues of corruption more than issues of street-level policing.

As the above examples indicate, police oversight and reform measures are not only needed in transition states, but in Western donor states as well. Such efforts are not sufficient on their own to ensure sustained and structural oversight and accountability. Rather, these should be part of and integrated with a broader package of reform that includes the establishment of Ombudsman institutions, Special Auditors, and in many cases, independent special prosecutors to investigate cases of alleged misconduct and abuse.

The right to use force is an incredibly precious right entrusted to the state by its people. It should be monitored regularly and carefully with appropriate and effective oversight and control mechanisms established. While internal oversight mechanisms exist in many police forces, unfortunately, many police forces have shown that they cannot police themselves.

[1] For online examples of CopWatch programs, see: http://www.berkeleycopwatch.org/; http://www.portlandcopwatch.org/; http://www.copwatchla.org/; http://www.peoplesjustice.org/site/index.php/Cop-Watch-Network/; https://copwatchnord-idf.org/.

Urban Planning is Key

2012-03-06T18:16:12Z

The Very Hungry City: Urban Energy Efficiency and the Economic Fate of Cities, Austin Troy, Yale University Press, £25.00/$28.00/20,00 €

In his new book Austin Troy shows how urban environment management is an important component of any solution addressing the energy crisis and climate change. As an associate professor at the University of Vermont and former city Planning Commissioner, the author’s obvious passion for urban energy efficiency and his straightforward and conversational writing style makes a somewhat dry topic truly fascinating. The book is sprinkled with the author’s pictures and personal anecdotes from field trips that took him across the United States and Europe. The reader thus gains insight into a Scandinavian urban redevelopment project that serves as a role model to the rest of the world or into the house of a Hollywood actor, who decided to turn his house “green.” A unique and rather clever feature of the book is its mini chapters on the different forms of existing energy and their sustainability, such as tar sands, nuclear fission, biofuels and wind; all to demonstrate to the reader that there is no “silver bullet” solution and that energy efficiency and energy conservation must absolutely be part of any serious action plan. The first part of the book outlines the energy crisis that cities worldwide are facing while the second part is all about solutions. Yet to the author’s credit he does not present the reader with a tedious list that has been regurgitated time and again. Instead, Troy delivers his message by going back to the historical roots of the problem and by using real-life examples, proving that it is possible for very hungry cities to go on a healthy diet.

—J.H.

#72 - Common Ground

2012-01-23T13:00:39Z

Check out if Common Ground is in The Top 100 NGOs 2013 Edition!

An integrated response to homelessness.

Over 70 American cities participating.

More than 650,000 Americans experience homelessness on any given night. Common Ground, a social service organization operating in New York since 1990, aims to address the needs of this often forgotten population by creating high quality permanent and transitional housing. Central to the philosophy of its founder, Rosanne Haggerty, is that attractive and affordable low-income housing can be joined up with other related needs in health, education and jobs training through an integrated program model.

Salvaging historic buildings, renovating them through creative financing from public and private sources, and partnering with other organizations to give residents more than just a roof over their heads, Common Ground has had impressive results. In 2011 the organization is approaching 3,000 units of housing created, with ongoing operational costs significantly less than government-run homeless shelters, jail cells or hospital wards. The ground-breaking ‘Street to Home’ outreach program meanwhile, reduced street homelessness by 87 percent in the 20 block Times Square neighborhood, and by 43 percent in the surrounding 230 blocks of West Midtown, New York.

Over 70 American cities now participate in a national Common Ground campaign, which has grown to include a significant youth-focused education and financial literacy element in partnership with public and charter schools, and community colleges.

#95 - Architecture for Humanity

2012-01-23T12:17:37Z

Check out if Architecture for Humanity is in The Top 100 NGOs 2013 Edition!

Humanitarian-focused design.

107 structures in construction or development.

A non-profit services firm founded in 1999, Architecture For Humanity aspires to build a more sustainable future by leveraging the power of professional design to support communities in need. Originating with two volunteers in San Francisco concerned with the immediate long-term shelter of returning Kosovar refugees, the organization has expanded rapidly to encompass 73 chapters in 25 countries globally.

Core to Architecture For Humanity’s work is a commitment to inclusive design that spurs lasting change. At the project level, this is focused on poverty alleviation (access to water, sanitation and power), disaster mitigation and reconstruction, post-conflict community building, reducing environmental footprints, and creating spaces to meet the needs of at-risk populations. Each year, 25,000 people benefit directly from structures designed by members of the Architecture For Humanity network, ranging from a Slums Information Development and Resource Centre in Nairobi to flood reconstruction in the Sindh Province of Pakistan.

Alongside specific projects, Architecture For Humanity also pursues outreach efforts aimed at catalysing innovation in the field of ‘humanitarian design’. Most notably, the organization has developed the ‘Open Architecture Network’ – the first web-based initiative to offer open source access to architectural plans and drawings as a means to foster knowledge sharing across the sector.